The International System Units

In earlier time scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for measurement. Three such systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS system were in use extensively till recently. The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows : 

• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second respectively.

The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale d’ Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau International des Poids et measures (The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal system, conversions within the system are quite simple and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in this book. 

Fig. 1

In SI, there are seven base units as given in Table 1. Besides the seven base units, there are two more units that are defined for (a) plane angle dθ as the ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r and (b) solid angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the spherical surface, described about the apex O as the centre, to the square of its radius r, as shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle is radian with the symbol rad and the unit for the solid angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both these are dimensionless quantities.

Table 1: SI base units
Name	Symbol	Measure	Post-2019 formal definition	Historical origin / justification
second	s	time	"The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency, ∆νCs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1."	The day is divided into 24 hours, each hour divided into 60 minutes, each minute divided into 60 seconds. A second is 1 / (24 × 60 × 60) of the day. Historically, a day was defined as the mean solar day; i.e., the average time between two successive occurrences of local apparent solar noon.
metre	m	length	"The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit m s−1, where the second is defined in terms of ∆νCs."	1 / 10000000 of the distance from the Earth's equator to the North Pole measured on the meridian arc through Paris.
kilogram	kg	mass	"The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ∆νCs."	The mass of one litre of water at the temperature of melting ice. A litre is one thousandth of a cubic metre.
ampere	A	electric current	"The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be 1.602176634×10−19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the second is defined in terms of ∆νCs."	The original "International Ampere" was defined electrochemically as the current required to deposit 1.118 milligrams of silver per second from a solution of silver nitrate. Compared to the SI ampere, the difference is 0.015%. However, the most recent pre-2019 definition was: "The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2×10−7 newtons per metre of length." This had the effect of defining the vacuum permeability to be μ0 = 4π×10−7 H/m or N/A2 or T⋅m/A or Wb/(A⋅m) or V⋅s/(A⋅m)
kelvin	K	thermodynamic temperature	"The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380649×10−23 when expressed in the unit J K−1, which is equal to kg m2 s−2 K−1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆νCs."	The Celsius scale: the Kelvin scale uses the degree Celsius for its unit increment but is a thermodynamic scale (0 K is absolute zero).
mole	mol	amount of substance	"The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group of particles."	Atomic weight or molecular weight divided by the molar mass constant, 1 g/mol.
candela	cd	luminous intensity	"The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed in the unit lm W−1, which is equal to cd sr W−1, or cd sr kg−1 m−2 s3, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆νCs."	The candlepower, which is based on the light emitted from a burning candle of standard properties.

The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techniques get improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up with this progress. 

Note that when mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified. These entities may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles. 

We employ units for some physical quantities that can be derived from the seven base units (Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). Some SI derived units are given special names (Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make use of these units with special names and the seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready reference. Other units retained for general use are given in Table 2.2. 

Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2. General guidelines for using symbols for physical quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and some other units are given in Appendix A8 for your guidance and ready reference.

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